Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection / A Series of Essays
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- CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION. A Series of Essays. BY ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, AUTHOR OF “THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO,” ETC., ETC.
- PREFACE.
- PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
- CONTENTS.
- I. ON THE LAW WHICH HAS REGULATED THE INTRODUCTION OF NEW SPECIES.[A]
- Geographical Distribution dependent on Geologic Changes.
- A Law deduced from well-known Geographical and Geological Facts.
- The Form of a true system of Classification determined by this Law.
- Geographical Distribution of Organisms.
- Geological Distribution of the Forms of Life.
- High Organization of very ancient Animals consistent with this Law.
- Objections to Forbes’ Theory of Polarity.
- Rudimentary Organs.
- Conclusion.
- II. ON THE TENDENCY OF VARIETIES TO DEPART INDEFINITELY FROM THE ORIGINAL TYPE.[D]
- Instability of Varieties supposed to prove the permanent distinctness of Species.
- The Struggle for Existence.
- The Law of Population of Species.
- The Abundance or Rarity of a Species dependent upon its more or less perfect Adaptation to the Conditions of Existence.
- Useful Variations will tend to Increase; useless or hurtful Variations to Diminish.
- Superior Varieties will ultimately Extirpate the original Species.
- The Partial Reversion of Domesticated Varieties explained.
- Lamarck’s Hypothesis very different from that now advanced.
- Conclusion.
- III. MIMICRY, AND OTHER PROTECTIVE RESEMBLANCES AMONG ANIMALS.
- Importance of the Principle of Utility.
- Popular Theories of Colour in Animals.
- Importance of Concealment as Influencing Colour.
- Special Modifications of Colour.
- Theory of Protective Colouring.
- Objection that Colour, as being dangerous, should not exist in Nature.
- Mimicry.
- Mimicry among Lepidoptera.
- Lepidoptera mimicking other Insects.
- Mimicry among Beetles.
- Beetles mimicking other Insects.
- Insects mimicking Species of other Orders.
- Cases of Mimicry among the Vertebrata.
- Mimicry among Snakes.
- Mimicry among Birds.
- Mimicry among Mammals.
- Objections to Mr. Bates’ Theory of Mimicry.
- Mimicry by Female Insects only.
- Cause of the dull Colours of Female Birds.
- Use of the gaudy Colours of many Caterpillars.
- Summary.
- General deductions as to Colour in Nature.
- Conclusion.
- IV. THE MALAYAN PAPILIONIDÆ OR SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLIES, AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION.
- Special Value of the Diurnal Lepidoptera for enquiries of this nature.
- Question of the rank of the Papilionidæ.
- Distribution of the Papilionidæ.
- Definition of the word Species.
- Laws and Modes of Variation.
- Variation as specially influenced by Locality.
- Remarks on the facts of Local variation.
- Mimicry.
- Concluding remarks on Variation in Lepidoptera.
- Arrangement and Geographical Distribution of the Malayan Papilionidæ.
- Range of the Groups of Malayan Papilionidæ.
- Remarkable Peculiarities of the Island of Celebes.
- Concluding Remarks.
- V. ON INSTINCT IN MAN AND ANIMALS.
- How Instinct may be best Studied.
- Definition of Instinct.
- Does Man possess Instincts.
- How Indians travel through unknown and trackless Forests.
- VI. THE PHILOSOPHY OF BIRDS’ NESTS.
- Instinct or Reason in the Construction of Birds’ Nests.
- Do Men build by Reason or by Imitation?
- Why does each Bird build a peculiar kind of Nest?
- How do Young Birds learn to Build their First Nest?
- Do Birds sing by Instinct or by Imitation?
- How young Birds may learn to build Nests.
- Man’s Works mainly Imitative.
- Birds do Alter and Improve their Nests when altered Conditions require it.
- Conclusion.
- VII. A THEORY OF BIRDS’ NESTS; Showing the relation of certain differences of colour in Female Birds, to their mode of Nidification.
- Changed Conditions and persistent Habits as influencing Nidification.
- Classification of Nests.
- Sexual differences of Colour in Birds.
- The Law which connects the Colours of Female Birds with the mode of Nidification.
- What the Facts Teach us.
- Colour more variable than Structure or Habits, and therefore the Character which has generally been Modified.
- Exceptional Cases confirmatory of the above Explanation.
- Real or apparent Exceptions to the Law stated at page 240.
- Various modes of Protection of Animals.
- Females of some Groups require and obtain more Protection than the Males.
- Conclusion.
- VIII. CREATION BY LAW.
- Mr. Darwin’s Metaphors liable to Misconception.
- A Case of Orchis-structure explained by Natural Selection.
- Adaptation brought about by General Laws.
- Beauty in Nature.
- How new Forms are produced by Variation and Selection.
- The Objection that there are Limits to Variation.
- Objection to the Argument from Classification.
- The “Times,” on Natural Selection.
- Intermediate or generalized Forms of extinct Animals, an indication of Transmutation or Development.
- Conclusion.
- A Demonstration of the Origin of Species by Natural Selection.
- IX. THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RACES UNDER THE LAW OF NATURAL SELECTION.
- Wide differences of opinion as to Man’s Origin.
- Outline of the Theory of Natural Selection.
- Different effects of Natural Selection on Animals and on Man.
- Influence of external Nature in the development of the Human Mind.
- Extinction of Lower Races.
- The Origin of the Races of Man.
- The Bearing of these Views on the Antiquity of Man.
- Their Bearing on the Dignity and Supremacy of Man.
- Their Bearing on the future Development of Man.
- Summary.
- Conclusion.
- X. THE LIMITS OF NATURAL SELECTION AS APPLIED TO MAN.
- What Natural Selection can Not do.
- The Brain of the Savage shown to be Larger than he Needs it to be.
- The Use of the Hairy Covering of Mammalia.
- The constant absence of Hair from certain parts of Man’s Body a remarkable Phenomenon.
- Savage Man feels the Want of this Hairy Covering.
- Man’s Naked Skin could not have been produced by Natural Selection.
- Feet and Hands of Man, considered as Difficulties on the Theory of Natural Selection.
- The Origin of some of Man’s Mental Faculties, by the preservation of Useful Variations, not possible.
- Difficulty as to the Origin of the Moral Sense.
- Summary of the Argument as to the Insufficiency of Natural Selection to account for the Development of Man.
- The Origin of Consciousness.
- The Nature of Matter.
- Conclusion.
- NOTES.
- NOTE A. (Page 360.)
- NOTE B. (Page 365.)
- INDEX.
- Footnotes
- [iii]
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- [x]
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